Biomechanical and neuromuscular performance requirements of horizontal deceleration: a review with implications for random intermittent multi-directional sports

Key points

1. 01High-intensity decelerations occur 80-104% more frequently than equivalent accelerations in professional soccer and 3.2-4.5 per minute versus 0.8-1.5 per minute in elite basketball
2. 02Impact peak forces during braking steps can reach 2.7 times those seen during the first steps of maximal acceleration, with GRF values of approximately 5.9 times body mass during the first deceleration step
3. 03Eccentric quadriceps strength at slow joint angular velocities (0-60 degrees per second) shows moderate to very large correlations with horizontal braking force, power, and impulse
4. 04Reactive strength index measured from drop jumps at 20 cm and 40 cm shows large significant correlations (r up to 0.65) with average horizontal deceleration ability, particularly during the early deceleration phase
5. 05Technical ability to orient ground reaction force more horizontally and maintain a posterior, lowered centre of mass is a key determinant of faster deceleration and change-of-direction performance

How it was conducted

Design

Narrative evidence-based review with structured literature search of PubMed, MEDLINE (EBSCO), and Google Scholar; search concluded November 2021

Eligibility

Studies measuring deceleration kinetics or kinematics during straight-line horizontal acceleration-to-deceleration or severe change-of-direction tasks (>= 90 degree turns) with physically active participants; no age restriction

Outcomes reviewed

Ground reaction force profiles, whole-body external mechanical forces, braking force attenuation demands, biomechanical determinants, and neuromuscular performance (NMP) determinants of horizontal deceleration

Populations covered

Physically active adults, academy and professional soccer players, rugby, basketball, handball, Australian rules football, and court-sport athletes across both sexes

Neuromuscular measures

Isokinetic eccentric and concentric quadriceps and hamstring peak torque, drop-jump reactive strength index, countermovement jump metrics (eccentric peak force, eccentric-deceleration RFD), rate of torque development

What they found

• Peak total GRF during braking steps reached 40-60 N/kg during the first 10-40% of stance, compared with lower values during acceleration
• For a 75-kg athlete, impact forces approximate 5.9 times body mass (58 N/kg) during the first deceleration step versus 2.1 times body mass (21 N/kg) during the corresponding acceleration step
• Average external mechanical power during maximal horizontal deceleration was 1.7 times greater than during the maximal acceleration phase of 180-degree COD tasks across 5-20 m distances
• Peak external mechanical power during a 2-second maximal horizontal deceleration was reported as approximately 44 W/kg versus approximately 26 W/kg during a maximal horizontal acceleration over the same period
• Knee joint angular velocities during braking steps ranged from 469 to 493 degrees per second, and quadriceps EMG values can exceed 150% of isometric maximal voluntary contraction
• Eccentric quadriceps peak torque at 60 degrees per second (dominant and non-dominant limb) correlated r = 0.53-0.64 (large) with deceleration time-to-stop and distance-to-stop
• Eccentric knee extensor peak torque at 30 degrees per second (non-dominant limb) correlated r = 0.71 (very large) with average horizontal braking force in female soccer players
• Drop-jump RSI at 20 cm and 40 cm correlated r up to 0.65 (large) with average horizontal deceleration ability and up to r = 0.65 with early-phase deceleration ability
• Mean horizontal-to-vertical GRF ratio in the ante-penultimate foot contact explained 55-61% of COD performance time variance in male team-sport athletes
• Athletes with higher eccentric quadriceps strength could approach COD at higher velocities (e.g., faster players achieved greater peak HBF in penultimate foot contact, ES up to very large) and produced faster overall COD performance times
• Ankle-to-knee muscle-tendon complexes attenuated 68-77% of impact forces during braking steps of sub-maximal enforced deceleration

Limitations

• All identified biomechanical and neuromuscular determinants come from cross-sectional observational studies; causality cannot be assumed and no training intervention data are available to confirm transferability
• Most studies evaluated pre-planned deceleration tasks, which may not reflect the unanticipated decelerations common in match play where less preparatory time is available
• Current investigations focus on single-joint isokinetic and vertical jump assessments; horizontal force and power tests with greater task specificity to braking demands have not yet been systematically investigated
• Studies primarily involve male participants and a limited range of sport types; sex-specific and sport-specific differences in deceleration determinants remain underexplored

Why it matters

For patients

Athletes and patients recovering from lower-limb injury should understand that rapid stopping places far higher forces on the knee than sprinting or even jumping, making targeted eccentric and reactive strength training essential before return to team sports.

For clinicians

Clinicians and strength coaches should assess eccentric quadriceps and reactive strength alongside technical braking skill, and prescribe mixed-method training (local eccentric loading plus coordinated whole-body deceleration drills) to reduce ACL injury risk and improve COD performance.

For readers

This review consolidates evidence showing deceleration is a distinct and under-trained locomotive skill in team sports, providing a framework for future research on training interventions and injury risk screening using horizontal deceleration tasks.